THE PROLOGUE
The Prologue sets out the ambivalence that the new community experiences as it is settling down in South Africa. The narrative begins with the death of a Chinese man, Chow Kwai For, in 1907. Chow commits suicide when he feels as an outcast in his adopted land. He acquiesces to the discriminatory laws in South Africa and consents to carrying a pass book. Other Chinese in the country are adamantly opposed to this, with Gandhi, who is in South Africa at this time, also standing in solidarity with the Chinese. Chow Kwai For firmly believed that "fitting in is what all people who come to new and strange lands want to do, in some or other way"1. An immigrant community has to deal constantly with mixed messages: " 'Fit in! Keep faith with home!' 'Assimilate!' 'Resist' - such were the age-old siren-calls to immigrant communities, tempting and perturbing generation after generation of settlers"2. It is not surprising the Chow Kwai For was not able to deal with the challenge.
This episode sets the mood for the varied history of the Chinese in South Africa but presented through the prism of Accone's own - a history of acquiescence, denial, endurance, survival and resistance.
SKY
The first section, SKY, deals with life in China at the turn of the 20th century. The title, All Under Heaven, given to China during the Han dynasty, is both the title of the book as well as the epigraph of this first section. It invokes the image of a China in relation to its grand epic origins and history. This is obviously why the Chinese were referred to as "sons of the celestial empire"3. It also suggests that China was seen by Chinese as constituting the whole world both in terms of its expanse and its significance.
The section deals largely with the origins of Langshi and Ah Kwok in the village, Sha Kiu, in the Kwangtung Province in Southern China. Langshi is a traditional Chinese herbalist, and wishes to assist his community in South Africa. It is 1911 when they begin their travels along the Pearl River and arrive in Canton which is the major port of departure.
This first section shows us the expectation with which they travel through their homeland, and gives us something of the expanse and diversity among the Chinese peoples themselves (for example, Ah Kwok learns of the Hakka and Tanka groups among the Chinese).4
Ah Kwok marvels at the world unfolding before his eyes, bewildered and mesmerised by the "smells and kinetic colours"5 he encounters. This journey is similar to that described by Chinese Nobel laureate Gao Xingjian in Soul Mountain, a journey through the land that, in his case, becomes a spiritual search for self.
Langshi and Ah Kwok encounter many tales of adventure from travellers they meet on the way. It seems that some men view travel to overseas destinations as a change or escape from their circumscribed rural and farming life. As pointed out already, travel to distant lands is the order of the day, and there is much reference to migration not only to South Africa but also to Australia and San Francisco. This time of the gold rush, with "dreams of gold" is ironically seen as an initiation to manhood. "He goes a boy, he will return a man".6
It is evident that women are not active in the choices that are being made; they passively accept the decisions of their men to leave home. The women at this point in the narrative are not actors but acted upon, and the men do not give adequate consideration to the effects that migration will have on them. They are made to feel that the migration is done on their behalf, that they will be the beneficiaries of the sacrifices of their menfolk. Sadly, by the end of the narrative, Ah Kwok's mother, Soi Sen, living alone in China, is murdered, envied by those who see her as benefitting from the wealth of her husband and son in South Africa.
While Accone's male relatives are not violently patriarchal, their behaviour shows that they naturally subscribe to the male hegemony that defines Chinese life, as it does other societies. The struggles and the endurance of the women is well-illustrated in All Under Heaven as it is in other stories set in China7. The succeeding generations of women in Accone's family show more assertiveness and independence. (Tracing this change in the narrative would be an interesting quest, but is beyond the scope of this paper.)
As Langshi and Ah Kwok finally leave China from Canton and look back at the mainland, it does indeed seem like "all under heaven". "Ah Kwok saw the vastness of China, as the land behind the city disclosed itself. And beyond that there were more and more mountains with strange shapes, rivers that ran yellow, gorges so deep that sunlight never touched their depths". He feels uneasiness, sadness and melancholy at leaving China - it seemed to Ah Kwok that a "veil had been drawn over all under heaven".8
The gifts that are bestowed on Ah Kwok when he leaves China are significant. Tian gives him the invaluable Shiji, the history book of 2000 years of Chinese life. "Shiji was an anthology of deeds and gallery of villains and heroes to captivate anyone's imagination". The second gift is a red silk cord. "This cord will bind you in Namfeechow to us in Chung-kwok… it symbolises holding kin together. It is a lifeline to your family that will never break. It will bring you back again".9
Holding up the cord, Ah Kwok appreciates that whether it is held taut or loose it still connects him to his motherland. He is urged to be rooted, to be grounded in the memory of the motherland. He is bound to China10. Ah Kwok is reminded that home is in China, that the umbilical cord will not be severed, and this is captured by the memorable words of his grandfather, Tian:
and you must not forget that wherever in the world you are and will be, Sha Kiu will always be your old family home. It cannot be otherwise, for here you have spent the first years of your young life. No village, no town, no city can take its place. Sha Kiu has your heart and you have its, forever.11
Unlike Imraan Coovadia's The Wedding, there was much "ceremony at [this]… migratory watershed".12
The familiar theme in postcolonial thinking - the yearning among immigrants for "home" (and the concomitant fear of dislocation) runs through Accone's narrative. When the grandfather prepares to leave China to come to South Africa he has to "fight the rising foreboding that this voyage would reduce him to being merely a vagrant in a foreign land"13. This premonition comes true when he arrives in South Africa. Due to the colonial and apartheid laws (ironically named "Gold Laws"), which in the early years of the century forbade them as "persons of colour" from owning land14, Ah Kwok is reduced to being a "vagrant".
They leave in the firm belief that they will return, and that they will return having amassed great wealth. They travel via Hong Kong, which Rey Chow, growing up there in the 1960’s and 1970’s, describes as "that classic immigrant city" and “junction between diaspora and homeland…”15
SEA
"All streams flow to the sea because it is lower than they are. Humility gives it its power. " —Tao Te Ching
The second section focuses on the SEA, which is the scene of multiple voyages that take place between South Africa and China and the rest of the world. Ocean liner travel was the chief means of transportation at the time. The father and son travel out of the "fish bowl" of the South China Sea, passing Singapore, the Karamata Strait, the Java Sea and Sunda Strait into the broad expanse of the Indian Ocean and the big world beyond. Ironically, though under the open skies, their actual travel is in the cramped steerage deck area, "feeling cooped up" and enduring the "biting realities of shipboard life in the poorest class"16. They are subjected to dehydration, sun stroke and fever, to the dazzling sun during the day.
The sea is that wide expanse where the transition from homeland to adopted land takes place. Ah Kwok spends a great deal of time remembering his experiences in China; memories of his mother and of his growing up days flood his mind. He is also initiated into new kinds of cultural experiences on board. He is shocked to hear, for the first time, that Chinese are reviled in the outside world - "No Dogs or Chinese Permitted". He tastes different "foreign" foods and encounters "a mill of strange tongues":
…sounds that made no sense to him, carried by voices that has no natural music to ear. Some were Chinese speaking different dialects, Langshi explained: solid pockets of the Hakka of the Moiyeanese people, Swatonese, Shanghainese here, and there a smattering of Mandarin. Oddest of all for Ah Kwok were the unfamiliar sounds issuing form people who looked quite similar, but were subtly different on closer examination. Black haired, short, but with more angular faces, these fellow travellers were from Japan, Langshi had told him. At this a frisson of anxiety, excitement and hostility ran through Ah Kwok's being.17
A fight develops between Ah Kwok and a Japanese boy, showing the antagonisms between groups who should have some affiliation. This illustrates vividly that the seas are another kind of 'contact zone". Meera Kosambi, drawing from Mary Louise Pratt and Indira Ghose, speaks of the notion of the 'contact zone' - the social space where disparate cultures meet, clash and grapple with each other, often in highly asymmetrical relations of domination and subordination, like colonialism".18
We realise too that the seas are the crossroads for great trafficking. Cargo of rubber copra, lumber and spices is an important part of the global trade of this part of the early 20th century. The history of the times is recalled as well, as there is talk on board of the English in Hong Kong, The League of Nations, and the Manchu Dynasty in China.
On board, the adverse effect on coherent family life is evident as Ah Kwok notices that the passengers are mainly men. In fact many of the labour schemes in the 19th and early 20th Century targetted men (Accone's text offers an interesting quarry for the study of discourses of masculinities in relation to colonialism and diaspora). Interestingly this pattern has changed in the late 20th and early 21st Century where women are an important part of the global labour flows.
Quite drastically, Ah Kwok is told by his father that his name will change to Ah Leong. Children are not allowed to accompany their families, so Langshi had acquired papers in China that suggested that Ah Kwok is his nephew! This change in his name shakes him deeply (and is an early symptom of the buffetting of identities and name changes that they will experience in the years to come).
While Ah Kwok is travelling in 1911 with his father on the Yamato Princess, full of hope and expectation for a new life, and with the memory of China gradually receding in the distance, we are introduced to another Chinese family from South Africa, and what is happening to them 11 years later, in 1923. A Chinese father is taking his South African wife and children to his homeland, China. The family are travelling on the ship The Daimaru. We are introduced to Gertrude Martin, the daughter of Chok Foon Martin and Cornelia von Brandis (as noted already, Gertrude or Gertie will later marry Ah Kwok and become Accone's grandmother). In juxtaposing these two journeys on the same seas, but separated by time, Accone shows the difference in expectation and lived reality, as well as the way different lives become interconnected in space and time.
Gertie is travelling with her parents and brothers and sisters. The children are born in South Africa, and are travelling to see the homeland of their father, who hails from the south of Canton. Before they arrive in Durban, the port of departure to China, they travel by train from Johannesburg, and we see their having to contend with the racist laws of the country. For example, when the ticket inspector on the train sees the family he sneers:
Jussus, but you people breed like flies. All from one family. No wonder this country is going to the dogs with all these yellow children, getting ready to grow up and take the White man's jobs.19
The story of how Martin (a Chinese merchant who came to settle in South Africa from Mauritius) and Cornelia met is also recounted. Cornelia is a white South African, of Prussian stock, and of the von Brandis clan; her family violently objected to her marrying a Chinese. The voyage for her is a time of remembering her past, and she recalls her meeting Martin: "For Cornelia, Martin was everything her family, Frederick excepted, was not. An authoritarian father and unbending mother, both obsessed with the trappings of social status and ignorant of other worlds and other cultures, had served only to stimulate Cornelia's interest in peoples beyond her ken"20. Accone shows how Cornelia, his maternal great grandmother, had to deal with her family who were typically "obsessed with questions of 'racial purity' ".21
In the Cape it is still possible to have unions such as the one contemplated between Cornelia and Martin. Secretly they go to Kimberley, travelling in separate compartments in order to get married. Cornelia's family are outraged. "Puce and quivering, her father had demanded to know who the interloper was. Then had come the volcanic spewing of rage and hatred and vituperative racism, showering her with threats and the table with pounding fists"22. She recalls the way they set up their home and the prejudice they had to contend with. She had to move from the affluent Belgravia, with its Randlord mansions, to Chinatown. The image and identity of Johannesburg's "northern suburbs" - which "have become the national metaphor variously representing white wealth, Eurocentricism, capitalist materialism, cultural elitism, political conservatism, and in spite of all that, social liberalism"23 - had their roots in the mining history of the city, of which the Chinese were an integral part; yet the segregationist policies of both the colonial and apartheid governments, played out in the lives of individuals, patently ignored this. Cornelia and Martin were inextricably linked in the economic history of South Africa.
On their sea journey we follow the family through all the ports of call - Mauritius, Singapore, Sumatra, and we register their impressions at each stop. At Singapore they are struck by the fact of their invisibility: "They marvelled at the number of Chinese - it looked as if three in every four people were of their race, a novelty in their short lives and one that made them feel curiously at home".24
Sadly, Martin sustains a fall on the ship and dies. "He died as the ship's bell gave its solitary ring for half past noon, with his wife Cornelia and five of his seven children at his side". Cornelia becomes a widow at 37, with 7 children, bound for a country that she has never seen, one where she knows no one, and whose language she could speak with only moderate fluency. They have no alternative but to see him buried at sea. The section ends with the family watching as "the shrouded figure grew smaller and smaller until the white speck of the winding-sheet, and the beloved man it carried, disappeared from sight".25
This section on the SEA as a whole gives us a sense of many disparate narratives and the relationships that develop among them.26 The sea is the gap between home and adopted home, past and future; it is a place of memory. The sea is the space where boundaries are fluid and identities are lost and found, asserted and reconfigured, where the flows are multidirectional. Caren Kaplan's point about "cosmopolitan diasporas"27 is particularly evident at sea, which also becomes a large criss-crossing discursive space (where diasporas meet and clash, or mingle and actually lose their definition).
It is also the one space where global subalternity is particularly visible, with hierarchies separating peoples constantly encountered and also transgressed.
The cryptic epigraph - "All streams flow to the sea because it is lower than they are. Humility gives it its power " – might suggest that in contrast to land and the territorialism that is connected with it, the sea is a place where identities are finally submerged (literally in the case of Martin).
EARTH
"Each Country Has Its Laws: Each Family Its Regulations." —Chinese Proverb
This sections deals with life on the two continents, Asia and Africa, China and South Africa. We follow the Langshi family through its history in Kwangtung Province, China in 1923, that of the Martin family in Johannesburg up to the late 1930's, in Pretoria up to 1947, and the general events in South Africa to 1955 when The Freedom Charter was signed. The Nationalist Party is at the helm in South Africa, and in China the Communist Party has come into power (and we know well how the propaganda of the "red danger" affected the liberation struggle in South Africa).
Ironically, the coercive weight of the oppressive laws of the country are exacerbated by the internal rules and restrictions that families in general, and this one in particular, assume. Accone shows how internal tensions, family squabbles, clan divisions, prejudice, moral and cultural regulation, sexism, are all played out, and are as much a part of the family's lived experience as are pressures imposed by the apartheid state. “Home” is not always that recuperative space of “psychic shelter” in an alienating world. The coercive nature of the home space with its own regimes of truth has to be sometimes vehemently resisted, as for example, in the case of Cornelia (against her Afrikaner parents who opposed her marrying a Chinese) and of Gertie (against her mother Cornelia who, ironically, refused her daughter the freedom she herself had claimed, and against her mother-in-law, Ah Hing). Sadly and ironically, Cornelia is antagonistic towards Gertie because she is darker-skinned that the others; Gertie seems to remind her more constantly of her Asian connections and her transgression across the colour line. In reflecting on the family Medalie notes:
What makes the story of this family even more engrossing is that it combines the typical and the aberrant, the expected and the unexpected. In certain respects it is a common tale of migration and settlement, of the struggle between tradition and modernity, of the forging of identity in unpropitious circumstances. But within that familiar pattern there are extraordinary episodes and wholly unforeseen developments.28
Accone paints a complex picture of the micro-politics of his family in relation to the macro-politics of the apartheid state. Ironically, while the interior (the self or family) tries to resist the colonization of the exterior, another level of colonization takes place. It would be illuminating to explore Foucault’s concept of “governmentality” in these contexts in relation to the self and family (or any other institutional pressure, for that matter), where "technologies of the self" are assumed and imposed. Giorgio Agamben, Italian philosopher and academic, in his explication of biopolitics, also argues that in processes of subjectivization internal and external power are in dialectical tension.29 Again, these issues are captured well in the epigraph to this section, "Each Country Has Its Laws: Each Family Its Regulations".
FIRE
I Am Lost In The Murk And Darkness As I Start On My Journey To The East.
The final section, Fire, relates many different historical and family events during the decades of the 50's and 60's. Following the success of the Communist Party in mainland China and the flight of Chiang Kai Shek's party to Taipei, the Nationalist government under Malan in South Africa took a very strong anti-communist line. This affected Accone’s family directly as Ah Leong was not able to bring his mother, Soi Sen, to South Africa as he had originally planned; she died under tragic circumstances in China, never to be re-united with him.
The events in China parallel the stranglehold of apartheid. The political situation in South Africa grows increasingly intractable; the stringent implementation of the Group Areas Act causes anxiety and disarray. Many events take place which affects the family directly or indirectly. For example, they are keenly aware of the "assault on Sophiatown" as they have close associations with those who live and work there. Then there are the forced removals from Sophiatown to Meadowlands (in Soweto) which many had to endure. While space is politicized globally (East vs West, First World vs Third World, etc,) this also happens in the context of the apartheid city, with the same ideology controlling both.
The momentous events leading up to "Soweto 1976" are also recounted, with the history of South Africa up to 1969 showing the political developments in the country in relation to the family history.
What was happening to his family was a microcosm of what was happening to other Chinese families in this country, and an indication of what other so-called non-European or non-white communities had to endure on a daily basis.
It is the period when Accone's parents, Kit and Jewel, in their courtship years, have to put up with many social restrictions. This is the time when there is discrimination in sport, transport, and entertainment venues, to name a few. For example, Kit and Jewel see an adaptation of Bizet’s opera, Carmen Jones, an all-black musical, in 1956, but are not allowed into many bioscope halls.
Yet, though restricted, they are able to connect vicariously with a colourful world through the popular culture of the day, with Hollywood stars being household names for the young people. Kit, described as "a Pretoria boy", develops as an expert on the saxophone and enjoys ballroom dancing. In spite of the cloud of apartheid the impression of an open and wonderfully vibrant cosmopolitan world is created, and is similar to that created by Aziz Hassim in The Lotus People. "From the shops constant waves of sound emerged, from maskanda to jazz, gospel to swing, penny whistle to traditional…"30
Throughout the narration details of family history is interspersed with events in the public sphere. Personal events are punctuated and marked by historic milestones and vice versa. For example, Accone notes that his parents, Jewel and Kit, marry on 26 June 1956, a year after the Congress of the People met at Kliptown, and that he was born in the year of the Sharpeville Massacre [1961].
Jewel’s family itself is subjected to dislocation as they move between Johannesburg and Pretoria. It is "heart-wrenching" when they have to leave "27a Perth Road", which is their familiar family home set up by Ah Leong and Gertie, and settle in a new home in Asiatic Bazaar. They experience much discrimination due to the Group Areas zoning in Pretoria. In 1958 through the new legislation, Asiatic Bazaar and Marabastad, are set aside for Europeans - but Non-Europeans were given seven years grace before being forced to leave. The mosques are actually given a permit system in order to operate. The constant uprooting, movement and relocation forced upon "peoples of colour" during apartheid shows that the experience of "diaspora" within the country, as Adam Small used the term in the context of District Six and Cape Flats, is comparable to that experienced on the global scale.31
In this section and in the rest of the narrative the family's various "experiences" of "Johannesburg", the city they have contributed to building, are through the "urban periphery"32, the "Group Areas" in which they live. While the vibrant cosmopolitan life of the mid-decades is generally captured, one also gets the sense that they are outsiders, that the heart of Kum Saan, the "City of Gold Mountain" they dreamed of while in China, and that they have a right to claim as their own, eludes them. (Johannesburg is in reality the classic case of the Apartheid City as it developed during the long haul of the 20th Century.) Ironically, from the beginning of its history, Johannesburg was viewed as a city of "uitlanders" or foreigners33, yet some are deemed more "outsider" than others…
Lily Changfoot, in her piece, "Return Journey", taken from her autobiographical work, A Many-Coloured South Africa: The Diary of a Non-Person, also writes of "running the racial gauntlet"34 in the 1940s and 1950s. She was born in Prospect township, attended the Krugersdorp Indian School and later the St Angela's Convent in Kensington, Johannesburg, the private white convent referred to in her account. As she notes, "As a South African Chinese, I was sandwiched between black and white. Despite their rationalisations against me, I do not hate them, nor am I vengeful: only grieved that South Africa, such a beautiful country, is made ugly by its policies. I'm saddened by my student memories, but prize the education I gained".35
We also note that in spite of these restrictions apartheid relocations provide new “contact zones”, where there is a great mixing of different peoples and religions, particularly among Indians, Africans, Coloureds, and Chinese, their shared discriminatory and adverse conditions acting as glue. "Makuloo hoppaan", a Chinese beer-type drink brewed in the community, is suggestive of this mix of cultures; there is also a Chinese shop, the [Hindu] Mariamman Temple, an Ismaili mosque all within close proximity.
We thus see in All Under Heaven how cultural space is interconnected and cultural borders porous, in contrast to apartheid that tried deliberately to separate people on the basis of “culture”. Abebe Zegeye argues that in memory the forms of sociality and intimacy that were generated in these separates spaces endures rather than the structural conditions which produced it.36 Apartheid's spatial geography based on differences of economics, class and race was yielding a "phenomenology of locality"37 that was variegated and unpredictable; "social spatial engineering"38 was having (and continues to have) other consequences…
Alongside this, distinct and distinctive Chinese customs are meticulously observed, as at the time when Jewel and Kit get married. This shows how, naturally, cultural traditions specific to a group are preserved and celebrated, yet common bonds across borders are sought and enjoyed. What is noteworthy as well here and in the rest of the narrative is that both men and women are "preservers of their race" (and not just women as in other cultural contexts)39, and both share in the handing down of tradition and custom in the new place of abode.
1 All Under Heaven. p4
2 Page 7
3 Page 68
4 Grewal and Kaplan point to the existence of "scattered hegemonies" where "multiple subjectivities" replace the European construction of a unitary subject. See Grewal, Inderpal and Caren Kaplan [eds]. Scattered Hegemonies - Postmodernity and Transnational Feminist Practices. 1994, University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis. p7
5 All Under Heaven. p41
6 Pages 40-41
7 See Chang, Jung. 1992. Wild Swans - Three Daughters of China. Flamingo: Harper/Collins: London; also Xinran. 2002. The Good Women of China. Chatto and Windus: London.
8 All Under Heaven. p48
9 Page 11
10 Amy Tan recalls in her autobiographical short story, A Pair of Tickets, the words that her mother told her: "Once you are born Chinese, you cannot help but feel and think Chinese". Published in The Oxford Book of Modern Women's Stories, ed. Patricia Craig, Oxford University Press.
11 All Under Heaven. p12
12 Coovadia, Imraan. 2001. The Wedding Picador: New York. p129
13 All Under Heaven. p12
14 Frescura, Franco. 2001. "The spatial geography of urban apartheid." In Zegeye, A [ed], p106
15 Chow, Rey. 1993. Writing Diaspora – Tactics of Intervention in Contemporary Cultural Studies. Indiana University Press: Bloomington, Indiana. p20
16 All Under Heaven. p96
17 Page 66
18 Kosambi, Meera [ed]. 2003. Returning the American Gaze - Pandita Ramabai's "The People of the United States" [1889]. Permanent Black: Delhi. p5
19 All Under Heaven. pp80-81
20 Page 111
21 Accone, Darryl. 2005. 'A Chinese Childhood in Sixties South Africa.' [in Chinese, translated from English], HK Writer 31, Hong Kong, 2005.
22 All Under Heaven. p113
23 Czegledy, Andre P. 2003. "Villas of the Highveld: A Cultural Perspective on Johannesburg and its 'Northern Suburbs'". In Tomlinson, Richard et al, pp. 21-42.
24 All Under Heaven. p56
25 Page 122
26 This section on the Sea in the narrative is a prolonged one, unlike similar narratives that deal with the 'mid-passage' of migration across the Indian Ocean. See, for example, the novel, The Wedding by Imraan Coovadia [2001], and Sita - Memoirs of Sita Gandhi [2003], by Sita Gandhi, edited by Uma Dhupelia-Mesthrie.
27 Ahmed, Rehana. 2004. “Mapping London in Amitav Ghosh’s The Shadow Lines.” In Chetty and Piciucco [eds], pp.70-88
28 Medalie, David. "Speech for the Launch of Darryl Accone's All Under Heaven." 4 May 2004, Johannesburg. p3
29 Agamben, Giorgio. 1998. Homo Sacer - Sovereign Power and Bare Life. Stanford University Press: Stanford, California. I am grateful to Nyna Amin, Fulbright scholar, staff member and doctoral student at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, for an illuminating discussion on these issues.
30 All Under Heaven. p253
31 Zegeye, Abebe [ed]. 2001. Social Identities in the New South Africa. Cape Town/Maroelana: Kwela Books and SA History on Line. p186
32 Tomlinson, Richard, Robert A Beauregard, Lindsay Bremner and Xolela Mangcu [eds]. 2003. Emerging Johannesburg - Perspectives on the Postapartheid City. Routledge: London. p3
33 Emerging Johannesburg - Perspectives on the Postapartheid City, same page
34 Yap, Melanie. 2003. Headnote. "Lily Changfoot, 'Return Journey'". In Women Writing Africa - The Southern Region, Vol 1, pp372-373
35 Changfoot, Lily. 1982. A Many-Coloured South Africa:The Diary of a Non-Person. St Catherine, Ontario: Bonsecours Editions. p374
36 He refers to District Six and the District Six Museum in Cape Town. See Social Identities in the New South Africa. p185
37 Czegledy in "Villas of the Highveld: A Cultural Perspective on Johannesburg and its 'Northern Suburbs'"
38 Jurgens, Ulich et al. 2003. "New Forms of Class and Racial Segregation: Ghettos or Ethnic Enclaves?". In Tomlinson et al, pp56-70
39 Govinden, D. 2000. Sister Outsiders - The Representation of Identity and Difference in Selected Writings by South African Indian Women. Phd. Dissertation, University of Natal [Unisa Press, forthcoming].
