Appendix A: On Right-Wing Estimates Of The Number Killed By Marxist-Leninism
Although there can be little doubt that Stalinism in particular and Leninism in general slaughtered millions, many right-wing historians, political scientists and commentators overly exaggerate the number killed using dishonest methods. These methods are only applied to official enemies (primarily Leninist states), never to western countries. If they were applied to western countries one would find that they have killed an even greater number than the states they are criticizing.
The standard methodology for calculating the number killed by Leninism (often incorrectly called "Communism") is to take the highest estimate of the number directly, intentionally killed (executions, etc.), add in the number of people who starved to death, and then add in the number of people who would have been born if previous population trends continued. This is the methodology used by Pipes in his histories of the Revolution, by The Black Book of Communism and others on the hardcore right.
This methodology is flawed for a number of reasons. Claiming that a change in population trends is equivalent to killing people is ridiculous. In order to be killed you first have to be born. Just because the birth rate goes down does not mean that mass murder is being committed. If this were applied to Western Europe it would find that the last fifty years was a time of massive death – but nothing of the sort is true. Western Europe's birth rate has just declined greatly and there is a big difference between a declining birth rate (or even a declining life expectancy) and actively killing people – a fact that is ignored by many rightists when it is convenient for propaganda purposes.
Counting death by starvation is probably fair, so long as it is done consistently and put in context. In most cases death by starvation is not intentional in the same way that executions are. In most cases, including Russia, leaders do not sit down and decide, "I want this many people to starve to death." Death by starvation is usually the result of systemic causes and is not intentional. The mass famine that occurred under Stalin (and, to a lesser extend, under Lenin) was the result of the Leninist system, which was incapable of feeding people, not the ill will of any particular leaders. This fact leads to a deeper critique of Leninism, since the starvation was cause by the Leninist system it would not matter if Stalin was a perfect saint – such atrocities would still occur. This needs to be applied consistently, though. Global capitalism causes thousands of people to starve to death every day, even though enough food is produced to feed everyone, yet none of these right-wing critiques that complain of starvation in Leninist states condemn global capitalism because of this. Market capitalist countries have a long history of mass famine throughout the globe just as bad as the Leninist states, yet death by famine is not usually added to the body count if these market capitalist countries. Adding death by starvation to the body count of Leninist states is legitimate, but it should also be added to the body count of market capitalist states, which the right does not do.
Counting the number of people directly killed through execution, death camps, etc. is obviously legitimate. Using high-end estimates is some times correct, some times not – it depends on the evidence supporting it. In some cases it is definitely not justified. For example, some right-wing accounts use Taiwanese propaganda as a source for the number of people killed by Mao, which would be like using Stalinist propaganda as a source for the number of people the US killed. It's obviously not credible. The "soviet" state was probably responsible for the deaths of 10-15 million people between 1917 and Stalin's death.
Capitalist condemnation of the millions killed by Leninism is thoroughly hypocritical. Capitalism has a long history of slaughtering millions, from the Atlantic Slave Trade, to the extermination of the Native Americans, to colonialism, to classical fascism and many more. Belgium's colonialism in Congo alone killed at least 10 million and the extermination of the Native Americans killed more than 100 million. Liberal capitalism brought about famine after famine in Ireland, India, Africa and many other parts of the globe. Thousands starve to death every day because of global capitalism. Non-Marxist forms of capitalism have killed more than Marxist-Leninism (state monopoly capitalism). Yet the massive deaths caused by most of these capitalist states are never given as much attention and is usually ignored. If we applied the methodology used by the right to estimate deaths due to "Communism" to the west we would find the numbers killed are even worse than the Leninists. That this methodology is only applied to Leninist states is a double standard and exposes their methodology as nothing more than a dishonest propaganda tool. To condemn Leninism for killing millions while supporting market capitalism (or vice versa) is the height of hypocrisy.
Appendix B: The Russian Anarchist Movement
Russian socialism has always had a libertarian strain. One of the earliest socialist movements in Russia were the nihilists, a close cousin of anarchism. The nihilists were extreme skeptics who stressed rationalism, materialism, anti-clerical atheism and science while advocating revolution and individual freedom. Many used individualistic acts of violence, such as assassinations and arson, against the monarchy. Nihilists participated in the December revolt and assassinated Tsar Alexander the second.
The famous anarchist, Mikhail Bakunin, Marx's nemesis in the first international, was from Russia although he became an anarchist in exile. He was born into nobility, but lost his privileges (and spent many years in prisons) due to his opposition to the revolutionary activity. Bakunin participated in the 1848 revolutions and was a republican and nationalists for many years; it was not until the later years of his life when he became an anarchist. Some of Bakunin's writings influenced the "to the people" (populist) movement of the 1870s, although it was not explicitly anarchist. The Social Revolutionary party eventually evolved out of the populist movement.
Another famous anarchist was Peter Kropotkin. His story was similar to Bakunin's. He was born a noble, lost his privileges (and spent years in jail) as a result of his revolutionary activity and became an anarchist in exile. Kropotkin was a scientist and developed anarchist theory in more depth than Bakunin, as well as advocating anarchist-communism (Bakunin was an anarcho-collectivist). Kropotkin was able to return to his native Russia after the February revolution, where he died in 1921. His funeral, held just a few weeks before the Kronstadt rebellion, was effectively also a large anarchist rally against the Bolshevik dictatorship. Black flags and banners were displayed, one proclaiming "where there is authority, there is no freedom." This was the last public anarchist gathering allowed in Russia by the state until Gorbachev.
Anarchists participated in the Russian Revolution and played a major role in the Ukraine. The anarchists allied with the Bolsheviks against the provisional government and participated in the October revolution. After October the anarchists broke with the Bolsheviks and advocated a "third revolution" to overthrow the Bolsheviks. Starting in April 1918 the Bolsheviks began repressing the anarchist movement, eventually eliminating it all together. Bolshevik propaganda claimed that they did not repress "ideological anarchists" but only "bandits" and "criminals" who used the anarchist label as cover for criminal activity. This was a lie concocted to justify totalitarianism and convert foreign anarchists to their cause. There were many "ideological anarchists" who were jailed including Voline, Maximoff, and others. Mirroring bourgeois propaganda, any anarchist who opposed the Bolsheviks was demonized as a "criminal" or "bandit." Bolshevik propaganda sometimes portrayed Makhno as a bandit. This Bolshevik propaganda was helped by the "soviet anarchists;" "anarchists" who supported the Bolshevik government, effectively abandoning anarchism in fact if not in name. The most famous of these "soviet anarchists" was Bill Shatov. A similar strategy of repression and propaganda against anarchists was used in during the revolution in Cuba, which had the largest anarchist movement in the world at the time. The anarchist movement was effectively destroyed in the post-Kronstadt repression. What little was left was annihilated in Stalin's gulags.
The Russian anarchist movement began to revive after Stalin's death. Khrushchev, Stalin's successor, increased civil liberties and ended the worst excesses of Stalinism. As a result a small underground anarchist movement was able to develop, although it was not very big until Gorbachev. Under Gorbachev and the greatly increased freedoms of the period anarchism grew rapidly. Anarchists were the first group in Moscow to take advantage of the greater civil liberties to hold a public demonstration against the government, marching under a banner reading "Freedom without Socialism is Privilege and Injustice, Socialism without Freedom is Slavery and Brutality" (a quote from Bakunin). For a while anarchism was a significant opposition movement, but after the coup and collapse of the USSR the Russian anarchist movement greatly shrank. In recent years it has begun growing again.
Appendix C: Timeline
1825: Decembrist Revolt
1861: Abolition of serfdom in Russia
1904: Russo-Japanese war begins
1905
Mass rebellions caused by Russia's defeat in the Russo-Japanese war culminate in the 1905 Revolution. First formation of Soviets
January: "Bloody Sunday" Troops fire on a defenseless march of workers led by Father Gapon. Mass strikes, mutinies and insurrections break out.
October: Height of the 1905 revolution. Tsar forced to proclaim "October Manifesto" turning Russia into a constitutional Monarchy. Huge strike and insurrection attempts to overthrow the government, fails.
1907: Height of the post-1905 reaction.
1914: First World War begins.
1917
February and March: February revolution. Uprising forces Tsar to abdicate, provisional government created. Soviets, factory committees and popular assemblies formed. Peasants begin expropriating land.
April: Lenin and other revolutionaries return to Russia. Lenin publishes April Theses. "April days."
May: Trotsky returns to Russia from America.
June: First all-Russian congress of soviets. Major offensive launched against Central Powers.
July: "July Days." Defeat of Russia's offensive. Kerensky made President of the provisional government.
August: Kornilov affair/coup. Population radicalized.
September/early October: Bolsheviks and other revolutionaries win majority in the Soviets.
October
25th: October Revolution. Provisional Government overthrown
26th-27th: Second All-Russian Congress. October Revolution overwhelmingly approved, Menshevik and right SR delegates walk out. Soviet government proclaimed, Council of People's Commissars created. Decrees on peace and land passed.
Worker take-over of factories and peasant expropriation of land rapidly accelerates.
Soviet government makes temporary armistice with Central Powers.
November: Elections for the Constituent Assembly. Decree on Workers' Control legalizes factory committee movement, but places the factory committees under the control of a system of state councils. Beginning of the centrally planned economy.
December: Kadets outlawed. Supreme economic council set up to run the economy, central planning takes another leap forward.
1918
January: Constituent Assembly dissolved. Third All-Russian Congress of Soviets.
February: Switch from old calendar to new calendar.
March: Brest-Litovsk treaty signed. Left SRs resign from the Sovnarkom as protest against the treaty. Bolsheviks begin disbanding factory committees. Trotsky appointed Commissar of Military Affairs (head of the military). Fourth All-Russian Congress of Soviets. Anti-Bolshevik worker unrest, including the conference movement, pick up.
Spring and Summer: Bolsheviks lose elections in soviet after soviet. They forcibly disperse soviets that do not have Bolshevik majorities and create undemocratic "soviets" with a Bolshevik majority. Effective end of the Soviet system, beginning of party dictatorship
April: Worker unrest against Bolsheviks increases. Cheka raids anarchists. Beginning of the suppression of the Russian Anarchist movement.
May: Burevestnik, Anarkhia, Golos Truda and other major anarchist papers suppressed.
9th: Grain monopoly decreed. Bolsheviks fire on a working class protest in Kolpino, touching of a wave of anti-Bolshevik proletarian unrest.
25th: Revolt of the Czech legion. SRs form anti-Bolshevik government in Samara. Beginning of the civil war.
Right-wing rebellions in Siberia and Southeastern Russia
June 28th Sovnarkom issues decree nationalizing almost all remaining privately owned businesses. Start of 'War Communism'
July: Fifth All-Russian Congress of Soviets, Soviet Constitution approved 'July Uprising' of Left SRs against Bolsheviks
August: High point of Volga offensive by SRs. Attempted assassination of Lenin by SRs. Start of the Red Terror.
September: Anti-Bolshevik governments merge, form 5 person directory to run the new state. Thee of the five are SRs, who make up the left-wing of the government.
November: Sixth All-Russian Congress of Soviets. Kolchak's Coup against the directory. Closet Monarchists come to power in anti-Bolshevik Russia, White military dictatorship implemented.
December: Hetman, Austro-German puppet government, driven out of the Ukraine
1919
Height of the Civil War
In the first months of 1919 the Bolsheviks loosen repression for a few months, but then put it back to its previous level.
March: First Congress of 3rd International
April: Kolchak's offensive in the East stopped. 'War of the Chapany' - Green uprising against Bolsheviks in the Volga.
September: Battle of Peregonovka Anarchist partisans in the Ukraine route General Denikin's forces, launch counter-offensive
October: Denikin's offensive in the south stopped.
December: Seventh All-Russian Congress of Soviets
1920
January: Collapse of eastern Whites, Kolchak shot. Blockade
lifted by Britain and France.
April: Border war between Russia and Poland begins. Denikin
resigns and hands power over to Wrangel
June: Wrangel launches new offensive
August: Martial law on railways declared, railway labor militarized. Major Green uprising in Tambov begins.
October: Bolsheviks and Poland make peace
November
14th: General Wrangel flees the Crimea. End of the civil war
26th: Final Bolshevik assault on Makhonvshchina begins
Late 1920: Peasant uprisings against the Bolsheviks intensify.
December: Eighth All-Russian Congress of Soviets
1921
February – March: Height of the post-Civil War unrest.
February: Large strikes in Moscow, Petrograd and many other cities. Numerous peasant uprisings
March:
1st-17th: Kronstadt rebellion
8th-16th: Tenth Party Congress. Workers' Opposition and Democratic Centralists defeated. Ban on factions. Beginning of the New Economic Policy (NEP).
June: Peasant rebellion in Tambov defeated
August: Makhno flees to Romania. Ukrainian anarchists defeated.
1922
December 30th: Union of Soviet Socialist Republics formed.
1923: Lenin retires from political activity after a series of strokes. First "scissors crisis."
1924 January 24th: Lenin dies
Triumvirate of Stalin, Kamenev and Zionviev defeats Trotsky
1927: Expulsion of Trotsky, consolidation of Stalin's dictatorship
1928: Beginning of five-year plans
1934-38: The Great Terror
Appendix D: Glossary
Anarchism: A philosophy advocating the abolition of all forms of hierarchical authority, including capitalism and the state
Anarcho-Communism: A form of anarchism advocating the abolition of money and markets and the organizing of the economy along the lines of "from each according to ability, to each according to need"
Anarcho-Syndicalism: Anarchism oriented towards unions and the labor movement
Authoritarian Socialism: Any form of socialism which relies on the state to bring about socialism
Bakunin, Mikhail: Major 19th century Russian anarchist. Marx's nemesis in the 1st international
Batko: Ukrainian for 'little father.'
Black Hundreds: Extreme right absolute Monarchists
Bolsheviks: Revolutionary Marxist party. Renamed the Communist Party in March 1918
Bourgeoisie: Capitalist class
Black Guard: Russian Anarchist militia
Blues: Local Nationalist troops in the civil war
Bukharin: Major Bolshevik theoritician and leader. Member of the Bolshevik party during the October Revolution. Killed during the Great Terror.
Bund: Jewish Socialist organization
Central Powers: Germany, Austria, and their allies during the First World War
Cheka: "Soviet" secret police
Chernov, Victor: Leader of the SRs, in it's centrist wing
Comintern: Communist International of Leninist parties and unions, also called 3rd international
Commissar: Government official
Communism: 1. Any philosophy advocating a classless society without money or markets organized according to the principle "from each according to ability, to each according to need" 2. In Marxist theory, the stage of history coming after socialism when the state has "withered away" and society is run according to the principle "from each according to ability, to each according to need" 3. Leninism 4. Marxism
Constituent Assembly: A legislature elected to write a constitution
Denikin: Tsarist general, commanded White army in South Russia.
Dictatorship of the Proletariat: Also called a "workers' state." In Marxist theory, a state controlled by the workers and used to suppress the bourgeoisie. This will "wither away" during the transition from socialist to communism
Duma: Russian parliament or city council
Entente: France, Britain and allies during the First World War
Free Battallions: Makhnovist volunteer fighters against the Rada and Austro-German imperialists
Greens: Peasant rebels who fought against both the Reds & Whites during the civil war. Defended the local peasant revolution.
Kadets: Constitutional Democrats, advocates of a liberal capitalist republic
Kamenev: Bolshevik leader
Kerensky: Head of the provisional government after July. Member of the SR party, in its right wing.
Kolchak: Tsarist admiral. Leader of the Whites between November 1918 and his execution in 1920
Kollontai, Allexandra: Bolshevik leader, leader of the Workers' Opposition. Member of the central committee during the October revolution.
Komuch: SR-dominated government established in Samara after the revolt of the Czech legion
Kornilov: Russian general. Allegedly launched a coup against the provisional government in august 1917 to impose a military dictatorship.
Kronstadt: Naval base about 20 miles west of Petrograd. A center of radicalism and big supporters of the October Revolution. In 1921 they rebelled against the Bolsheviks, called for Soviet Democracy and accused them of betraying the revolution.
Kropotkin, Peter: Major Russian anarchist theorist
Kulak: 1. A relatively wealthy peasant 2. A derogatory term for any peasant opposed to the Bolsheviks
Left SRs: Faction that broke away from the SRs shortly after the October Revolution. Advocated Soviet Democracy. A peasant party.
Lenin, Vladmir: Russian Marxist, leader and founder of the Bolshevik party
Leninism: Philosophy based on the ideas of Vladmir Lenin.
Libertarian Communism: 1. Anarchism 2. Anarcho-Communism 3. Libertarian Marxism
Libertarian Socialism: Anarchism
Makhno, Nestor: Ukrainian Anarcho-Communist
Makhnovists: Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of the Ukraine
Makhnovshchina: Makhno Movement
Martov: Menshevik leader
Marxism: A philosophy based on the ideas of Karl Marx. Includes historical materialism, the labor theory of value, dialectical materialism and advocacy of a "dictatorship of the proletariat."
Maximalists: Also called SR-Maximalists. Faction that broke off from the SRs as a result of the 1905 revolution. Their politics were between the anarchist and Left SRs.
Maximoff: Russian Anarcho-Syndicalist
Mensheviks: Marxist party. Believed that Russia's revolution had to be capitalist and democratic, opposed the October revolution. The more conservative of the two Marxist parties.
Mir: Peasant commune
NEP: New Economic Policy (1921-28), allowed a limited degree of private enterprise and a regulated market
Octobrists: Constitutional Monarchists
Oshchina: Village land commune (Mir)
Petty Bourgeoisie: 1. Small business owner 2. peasants or artisans 3. Lower middle class 4. a derogatory term for someone who disagrees with Marxism or a specific brand of Marxism
Plekhanov: Father of Russian Marxism
Pogrom: Massacre of Jews
Pravda: Official Bolshevik newspaper
Proletariat: Working class
Rada: Ukrainian nationalist government
Red Army: Bolshevik army
Red Guards: Workers' militias, often loyal to the Bolsheviks
Red Terror: Massive repression launched by Bolsheviks after an attempted assassination of Lenin
Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of the Ukraine: Revolutionary partisans in Ukraine organized by the anarcho-communist Nestor Makhno
Skhod: Village assembly
Socialism: 1. A classless society 2. In Marxist theory, the stage after capitalism but before Communism in which the dictatorship of the proletariat rules and individuals are paid according to how much they work
Soviet: Russian for council. In this text the term is used to refer to either the councils of workers', soldiers' and/or peasants' deputies or to the Bolshevik state
SRs: Social Revoluionary Party, non-Marxist socialists. A peasant party, strong supporter of the Constituent Assembly. Two groups split off: the Maximalists after the 1905 revolution and the Left SRs during the 1917 revolution.
Stalin, Joseph: Bolshevik who became dictator over Russia in the late 20s
Stalinism: 1. The period in Russian history in which Stalin ruled the USSR 2. A philosophy based on the ideas of Joseph Stalin 3. Any form of Leninism which is not hostile to Joseph Stalin and does not thoroughly condemn his rule
Tachanki: Sprung carts used by the Makhnovists to move swiftly
Tsar: Russian King/Emperor
Trotsky, Leon: Major Marxist leader. Joined the Bolsheviks in 1917, helped lead the October Revolution. Head of the military during the civil war. Opponent of Stalin.
Trotskyism: Philosophy based on the ideas of Leon Trotsky
Voline: Russian anarcho-syndicalist
Volost: The smallest administrative unit in Russia
Volynka: Russian for 'go slow.' Used to refer to the post-civil war wave of anti-Bolshevik strikes and worker unrest.
War Communism: The economic system in Bolshevik Russia from summer 1918 until 1921
Wrangel: Tsarist general, leader of the White forces in the south after Denikin resigned
Zemstvo: Provincial and district level local government, dominated by the gentry
Zinoviev: Leader of the Bolshevik party. On the central committee during the October Revolution
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